Thousands of years ago, before the existence of Egyptian civilization, the regions of North Africa that surround the Nile River were fertile grasslands and woodlands, providing farmland and grazing land for communities of people. Historians estimate that around 3500 b.c.e., however, the environment in these grasslands began to change dramatically, perhaps because of overgrazing of the land, and eventually the region turned into desert, primarily the Sahara. Looking for a place where they could grow crops and keep herds of farm animals, people migrated into the area around the Nile River, forming small settlements beginning in about 3000 b.c.e. Because Egypt then and now has almost no rainfall, the Nile, which flows northward from Lake Victoria in Uganda, became the central feature of Egyptian agriculture, as well as of the Egyptians’ cultural and religious life.

The region’s very earliest settlers relied primarily on hunting, fishing, and foraging. They produced food, including limited crops, only for personal consumption. They were unable to store food, so food production was limited by the seasons. The development of more organized agriculture in many senses led to the rise of Egypt as a nation, for it was only through the agricultural surpluses that farmers produced

that Egypt was able to take part in trade and support a class of rulers, soldiers, scholars, civil servants, and others who made the existence of the state possible. Further, by growing crops that could be stored, the Egyptians could maintain a steady supply of food throughout the year. This enabled the population of ancient Egypt to expand dramatically, because famine became far less common. Without the Nile River, the world’s longest river at 4,037 miles, ancient Egypt could not have existed as a nation.

THE FLOODPLAIN

The Nile River was surrounded by a fertile strip of land that provided the ancient Egyptians with most of their material needs. Immediately adjacent to the banks of the river was the floodplain. Each year, this land flooded with rising waters from the Nile, which was fed by water from monsoon rains in Ethiopia, far to the south. In an average year, the water would rise about 27 feet during a period called akhet, or the inundation, which ran roughly from July to December, with the flooding reaching its peak in late September and then beginning to recede in October. During this period, the land was flooded, and farm animals were moved to higher ground. Thefl ood waters provided not only moisture for growing crops but also large amounts of fertile silt—that is, tiny particles of soil that were carried and left behind by the water when it receded. This silt was rich in nutrients, and it was in the waterlogged silt that the Egyptians planted their crops. The soil was so rich that it was black, causing the area often to be referred to as the Black Land.

In addition to the floodplain were higher elevations around the river. These areas of low desert did not become flooded, so they were not used extensively for crops. They were used primarily for hunting and burial of the dead. At still higher elevations away from the river were sparsely inhabited desert regions. In these areas, dates and grapes were cultivated. Traveling caravans passed through the desert, and the dates and grapes were often picked up and used to trade with other regions in North Africa and beyond. Water for these crops had to be laboriously transported from the river.

WATER MANAGEMENT

Growing crops in the floodplain was not simply a matter of allowing the water to recede and then sowing seed. The ancient Egyptians relied on a complex system of locks and dams to control, contain, store, and distribute the water. They built dams at right angles to the water’s flow, forcing the water into large basins that covered some 1,000 to 4,200 acres of ground. These basins were lined with clay to prevent the water from seeping into the ground. The water in the basins was then diverted by a system of dikes into canals, where it flowed where it was needed. Keeping this system of dikes and canals in working order was an ongoing task. Each year every Egyptian (and most took part in agriculture) had to move on average about 23 cubic yards of soil to keep the canals and dikes working properly. 

Overall, about 5 million to 8.4 million acres were flooded in this way. Construction of these dams, dikes, and basins occurred over a thousand years, so that by about 2000 b.c.e., the entire region bordering both sides of the Nile each year became a checkerboard of flooded basins during the highwater season and beyond. Water was regarded as property held in common, so the basins were also connected by sluices (canals with gates) so that it could be drawn for use upstream whenever there was not enough water downstream.

On average, the river rose 27 feet during the flood season. In some years, though, the river’s rise would be less, sharply reducing the amount of water and silt and therefore the area available for crop cultivation. In these years, famine could result. On the other hand, in some years the water rose higher than 27 feet. The result was chaos, as people and farm animals could lose their lives as they scrambled to find higher ground. In modern times, the floodwaters of the Nile are controlled by the Aswān Dam. Construction of the dam was begun in 1902 and completed in 1988.

PLANTING

Planting usually began in December, after the waters had receded enough for work to begin. This period of receding waters was called proyet or peret, meaning “the emergence,” when the ground emerged from the water. The period December through March was the coolest season of the year. It was during this time that crops germinated and grew (unlike many other regions of the world, where crops are grown during the warmest months).

Unlike the soil in such places as the American Midwest, which has to be turned over with heavy plows, the light alluvial silt in which the ancient Egyptians planted their crops had only to be broken up on the surface. (Alluvial describes deposits of soil on a floodplain or anywhere it collects next to a body of water.) For this purpose the Egyptians used plows that were light in weight and connected to the horns of oxen or even cattle. These draft animals were driven by a person, often children, with a stick. The plows were generally made of wood, although some had bronze blades. Sometimes draft animals were not available, so people pulled the plows or used short-handled wooden hoes to break up the surface of the soil; these hoes were so short that the work was backbreaking.

One important tool was the shaduf (also spelled shadouf or shadoof). This was a tool for irrigation that was originally developed by the ancient Sumerians. It was made of a long branch or pole on an upright frame. At the long end of the pole hung a skin bag, a bucket, or even a reed basket coated so that it would hold water. At the short end of the pole was a weight, typically a stone. This weight served as a counterweight to the bucket when it was filled with water. The operator lowered the bucket into the water and then easily raised it out with the help of the counterweight. He then swung the pole to carry the water to where it was needed, often an irrigation canal. Thus, the floodwaters continued to irrigate crops even after the river receded. Estimates are that a farmer could move about 660 gallons of water each day with the shaduf.

The planting of crops at this point was relatively easy. The farmer simply walked over the ground with a bag of seed, sowing the seed as he walked. Frequently, the farmer would then drive a herd of goats, cattle, or sheep over the ground. In this way the seed was pressed into the soil so that birds were not able to eat it. The ancient Egyptians grew a variety of crops in this way. The most common crops were grains. (In many older texts, readers are likely to find the word corn used to refer to these grain crops. To Americans, corn refers to the yellow vegetable found on cobs, but in earlier eras it was a general word for grain.) One was emmer wheat, though the Egyptians stopped growing this crop after the Romans took over the area. Other varieties of wheat were grown as well. Barley was grown for use in beer and in baking, though this crop became less important after the Romans invaded and replaced beer with wine as the favored beverage.

Other crops included flax, used to make ropes and cloth; papyrus reed, used to make such products as boats, paper, rope, sandals, and various household goods such as mats); and the castor oil plant, from which oil was pressed. Also grown were vegetables, though typically in smaller plots for consumption by the farmer and his family. Fruits included melons, pomegranates, dates, figs, and grapes. An enormous number of bees provided honey used in desserts.

In addition to crops, the ancient Egyptians relied on livestock for food. Some of this livestock, including oxen and donkeys, was used to help with the work of plowing and harvesting. Later, around 1600 b.c.e., camels and horses were imported from Asia for similar purposes; camels were unknown in Egypt during the time of the pharaohs. Otherwise, the Egyptians also kept sheep, pigs, goats, ducks, and cattle for consumption as well as for hides and milk. Dried animal dung was put to use in cooking fires.