Agriculture arose independently in many locations throughout
the world, and each time it was the result of people’s manipulating plants and animals that already lived around them. In
Africa this process happened numerous times in diff erent locations. Africa’s geography prevented the smooth transmission
of crops and livestock from place to place. As a result, people
on the continent never had the chance to develop large agricultural civilizations such as those in Mesopotamia.
Egypt was the fi rst place agriculture appeared in Africa,
arising about 6000 b.c.e. as traders from the Near East ventured into the Nile River valley, bringing crops with them.
Near Eastern agriculture traveled as far as the Ethiopian
highlands but could not move farther into the continent, owing to geographical and climatic barriers. Hunter-gatherers
in the area just south of the Sahara domesticated livestock
starting about 3000 b.c.e. but did not begin growing crops for
another thousand years or so. Between 2000 b.c.e. and 1 c.e.
people living south of the Sahara developed several diff erent
kinds of crops, depending on climatic conditions; people in
West Africa grew rice and yams, while people in the Sahel
grew drought-resistant grains.
Farming and herding did not travel south of the Serengeti until about 1 c.e.; eastern Africa around Kenya and
Tanzania was home to the tsetse fl y, which caused sleeping sickness, deadly to both humans and cattle. As cattle
evolved resistance to the disease, farmers and herders began
moving south into southeastern Africa, bringing African
crops with them. People in this area gradually adopted some
Asian crops as well, importing them from Indian traders.
Th e southward progress of agriculture continued to be very
slow; domesticated crops did not arrive in South Africa until the 17th century, and they came with European sailors,
not overland.
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHY: AN OBSTACLE TO
AGRICULTURE
Africa’s geography presented a major obstacle to the spread
of agriculture. Africa is a large continent with a wide range
of climatic conditions. Its longest axis runs from north to
south and crosses the equator, which means the various parts
of Africa are very diff erent from one another. Th e length of
days varies depending on distance from the equator; this is
important, because many plants grow well only in days of a
particular length. For example, at the equator days are about
the same length year-round. Far south of the equator, in
South Africa, days are long in summer and short in winter.
Plants that thrive at the equator may not succeed in South
Africa. Seasons are diff erent in diff erent places as well; summer in North Africa is winter in South Africa. Tropical eastern Africa experiences the monsoons of the Indian Ocean.
Rwanda is mountainous and has its own climate. By contrast,
agriculture spread quickly through the Middle East and Asia
because the Eurasian continent stretches from east to west on
roughly the same latitude. Plants that grow in southeastern
Turkey will also grow in Spain or Iran. Rice that grows in
western China will also grow in Japan and India.
Th e Near East is close to Africa, so it would seem that
agriculture would have quickly moved from there to Egypt,
but in fact agriculture entered Africa a good 1,000 years aft er
it traveled to Europe around 6000 b.c.e. Th e Sinai desert was the fi rst obstacle; most people did not want to venture into
it. Th e Sahara was another enormous impediment. Central
Africa is full of dense rain forest and mountain ranges, both
of which present diffi culties to travelers. Middle Eastern crops
grew well in the Nile River valley, with its stable climate and
regular fl ooding. Th ey also grew well in other locations with
climates similar to that of the Near East, such as the Ethiopian highlands. Th ey did not, however, grow well in Sudan,
which has periodic monsoons. Th e Sahara likewise did not
provide a suitable climate for Near Eastern grains. South Africa has a climate suited to Near Eastern grains, but it was so
far away that no one could get there from North Africa.
As a result of these geographical limitations, agriculture
did not spread readily through Africa, as it did through Europe and Asia. People domesticated plants and animals, but
they did so in isolated pockets and independently of one another. Th is domestication also happened much later in Africa
than it did in Eurasia; scholars believe that Africans did not
domesticate their own grains until 2000 to 1000 b.c.e.
NILE RIVER VALLEY
Th e Nile River valley was the fi rst place agriculture appeared in Africa. Th e Nile is a very long river, fl owing more
than 4,000 total miles through eastern Africa. Th e White
Nile begins in Rwanda and fl ows north through Tanzania,
Lake Victoria, Uganda, and Sudan. Th e Blue Nile starts in
Ethiopia and fl ows through Sudan as well. Th e two tributaries meet in Sudan and fl ow north through the desert into
Egypt. People lived all along the length of the river. Th ousands of years ago they lived as hunter-gatherers, hunting
wild animals, fi shing in the river, and gathering the many
wild plants that grew in the river valley. Th e Nile River valley
has a very regular annual fl ood schedule. Th e Nile overfl ows
its banks every summer, and the fl ooding reaches southern Egypt by the middle of August and the Mediterranean
about a month later. Th is fl ooding wets the soil along the
length of the river for about two months, creating a moist
environment for plants.
Agriculture traveled south down the Nile River valley between 6500 and 5500 b.c.e. People living in the Near East had
started growing plants for food about 8000 b.c.e. Travelers
venturing southwest into Egypt brought agricultural techniques with them, and these practices gradually made their
way south into Africa. By 5000 b.c.e. the Nile River valley
was populated by people living off domestic crops and livestock. Th ey also made pottery similar to that of the Near East.
Near Eastern agriculture traveled as far as the highlands of
Ethiopia, where the climate was similar to the climate where
the plants and animals had fi rst been domesticated.
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Th e Sahara is now a desert that grows bigger every year. Few
people venture into it, and no one farms it. In prehistoric
times, however, the Sahara was very diff erent; it was fertile
enough to be one of the places where humans developed agriculture. Scholars are not sure whether people living in Africa the first obstacle; most people did not want to venture into it. The Sahara was another enormous impediment. Central Africa is full of dense rain forest and mountain ranges, both of which present difficulties to travelers. Middle Eastern crops grew well in the Nile River valley, with its stable climate and regular flooding. They also grew well in other locations with climates similar to that of the Near East, such as the Ethiopian highlands. They did not, however, grow well in Sudan, which has periodic monsoons. The Sahara likewise did not provide a suitable climate for Near Eastern grains. South Africa has a climate suited to Near Eastern grains, but it was so far away that no one could get there from North Africa.

As a result of these geographical limitations, agriculture did not spread readily through Africa, as it did through Europe and Asia. People domesticated plants and animals, but they did so in isolated pockets and independently of one another. This domestication also happened much later in Africa than it did in Eurasia; scholars believe that Africans did not domesticate their own grains until 2000 to 1000 b.c.e.

NILE RIVER VALLEY

The Nile River valley was the first place agriculture appeared in Africa. The Nile is a very long river, flowing more than 4,000 total miles through eastern Africa. The White Nile begins in Rwanda and flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda, and Sudan. The Blue Nile starts in Ethiopia and flows through Sudan as well. The two tributaries meet in Sudan and flow north through the desert into

Egypt. People lived all along the length of the river. Thousands of years ago they lived as hunter-gatherers, hunting wild animals, fishing in the river, and gathering the many wild plants that grew in the river valley. The Nile River valley has a very regular annual flood schedule. The Nile overflows its banks every summer, and the flooding reaches southern Egypt by the middle of August and the Mediterranean about a month later. This flooding wets the soil along the length of the river for about two months, creating a moist environment for plants.

Agriculture traveled south down the Nile River valley between 6500 and 5500 b.c.e. People living in the Near East had started growing plants for food about 8000 b.c.e. Travelers venturing southwest into Egypt brought agricultural techniques with them, and these practices gradually made their way south into Africa. By 5000 b.c.e. the Nile River valley was populated by people living off domestic crops and livestock. They also made pottery similar to that of the Near East. Near Eastern agriculture traveled as far as the highlands of Ethiopia, where the climate was similar to the climate where the plants and animals had first been domesticated.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

The Sahara is now a desert that grows bigger every year. Few people venture into it, and no one farms it. In prehistoric times, however, the Sahara was very different; it was fertile enough to be one of the places where humans developed agriculture. Scholars are not sure whether people living in Africa invented agriculture or learned of agriculture from foreigners; archaeologists have not studied African history nearly to the extent that they have in other parts of the world. Nevertheless, it seems entirely possible that humans could have independently domesticated crops in the Sahara and Sahel.

Between 5000 and 2000 b.c.e., the Sahara had greater rainfall than it does now. Parts of it had so much rainfall that the areas were among the most fertile environments in Africa. The Sahel, the grassy area south of the Sahara, extended farther north and covered the areas that are now the southern and central parts of the Sahara desert. During the rainy season these grasslands became marshy in places, and seasonal lakes appeared. Hunter-gatherers lived on the shores of these lakes, gathering wild plants, fishing, and hunting the animals that came there to drink.

Africans domesticated cattle before they domesticated plants. Starting around 3000 b.c.e., people in the southwestern Sahara began to herd cattle. Most scholars believe that these cattle had come from domesticated cattle in the Near East that had traveled into Africa with herders in search of pastures. Other historians think that Africans caught and domesticated wild cattle living in the area. In any case, by 2000 b.c.e. numerous people in East Africa lived off their cattle herds, consuming meat and milk. The climate in the Sahara was starting to get drier around that time, and it was impossible to cultivate grain. Cattle became central to the economy there. People also herded goats, but cattle were much more important to them. They lived in villages with several houses made of mud and sticks, and they made pottery and traded with neighboring villages.

Around 2000 b.c.e. the Kintampo people of present-day Ivory Coast and Ghana began herding and trading sheep and goats in addition to cattle. They started growing pearl millet and extracting oil from oil palms around 1,500 b.c.e. At about this time agriculture began spreading slowly throughout central and southern Africa. People in the area had lived as hunter-gatherers, but they gradually began settling down and farming instead. These people were of the group called the Bantu. Bantu people started growing crops in the Lake Victoria region between 500 and 250 b.c.e.

In the first century of the Common Era people in modern-day Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique started cultivating African crops, including pearl millet, finger millet, and sorghum, and raising cattle, sheep, chickens, and goats. During the first five centuries c.e. people living on the Kenyan coast began trading with people sailing from India and Southeast Asia. They adopted Southeast Asian crops, such as bananas, yams, and taro, which grew equally well in the East African climate. During this period people living in wet coastal areas began settling in villages, feeding themselves with their crops. People in the drier inland regions continued to live as herders.

Agriculture and domestic animals did not reach the northern parts of South Africa until the late fifth century c.e. Farmers and herders could not settle farther south, across

South Africa’s Fish River, because their crops could not grow in South Africa’s Mediterranean-like climate. Agriculture did not reach South Africa until Europeans arrived in ships in 1652, carrying with them European crops that could thrive in the local climate. Agriculture’s progress southward through the continent was quite slow, mainly because Africa itself presented so many geographical difficulties. In addition to the problems of terrain and adapting plants to new climates, pests such as the tsetse fly devastated populations of cattle and herders. Herders stayed north of the Serengeti Plain from 2000 b.c.e. until 1 c.e., by which time new breeds of livestock had evolved that could cope with the southern conditions. Humans had to adapt their trading economies as well; because travel was so difficult, different tribes rarely met and had to learn how to communicate with one another.

The people who adopted agriculture began raising several types of crops and animals at once. They grew sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet, and they raised cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens. They began to work with iron as well, as the technology spread through the continent. As agriculturists took over the landscape, groups of hunter-gatherers were pushed to the margins. The Khoisan Bushmen were forced into the Kalahari Desert and South Africa, where they took up sheep herding. The jungle peoples of the Congo region continued to hunt and gather wild plants deep in the forests. The Bantu people themselves never formed the large civilizations that appeared in other parts of the world. They had villages and trading networks and cultural traditions, but they did not build cities or develop advanced technologies.

NORTH AFRICA

North Africa’s climate and geography are very different from those of sub-Saharan Africa. Although the desert begins within a few miles of the sea, the area along the Mediterranean coast is fertile and flat. Phoenicians traveling from Lebanon colonized North Africa from Libya to Morocco between 1000 and 600 b.c.e. People living in the area farmed Near Eastern crops, such as wheat, for export to other areas. Carthage became the center of the North African trading empire in the fi fth century b.c.e. Rome took over much of Cathage’s territory after the Punic Wars, fought with Rome, forming a new province in northern Tunisia in 146 b.c.e. This province encompassed some 5,000 square miles of the most fertile part of North Africa. The land there became Roman public land, and the government leased it out to grain farmers, who grew wheat for export to Rome. North African estates were vast. Most of the land was in the hands of a few absentee landowners, although there were also more modest estates owned by locals. Scholars believe that about half a million tons of wheat left Carthage annually. Carthage became the second-largest city in the Mediterranean on the basis of its agricultural exports. By the second century b.c.e. North Africa was also exporting olive oil, figs, grapes, and beans. North Africa continued to supply grain to Rome until the end of the Roman Empire.